type of invention

1) тип, вид; группа

2) шрифт; литера

3) символ

4) модель, образец

5) штамп, оттиск

•

- type of invention

1 need.

tenemos una urgente necesidad de espacio we are in urgent need of more space

de (primera) necesidad essential

no hay necesidad de algo there's no need for something

no hay necesidad de hacer algo there's no need to do something

tener necesidad de algo to need something

obedecer a la necesidad (de) to arise from the need (to)

2 necessity.

por necesidad out of necessity

una herida mortal de necesidad a fatal wound

3 hunger (hambre).

pasar necesidades to suffer hardship

* * *

► nombre femenino

1 necessity, need

2 (hambre) hunger

3 (pobreza) poverty, want

\

de necesidad essential

hacer sus necesidades familiar to relieve oneself

no hay necesidad de... there's no need to...

pasar necesidades to be in need, suffer hardship

* * *

1) need, necessity

2) poverty, want

* * *

1) (=urgencia)

a)

- hacer de la necesidad virtud

- la necesidad aguza el ingenio

b)

c)

d)

e) (=cosa necesaria) [personal] need; [objetiva] necessity

2) (=pobreza) need

3) (=apuro) tight spot

4) pl necesidades

a) (=privaciones) hardships

b)

- hacer sus necesidades

* * *

1)

a) (urgencia, falta) need

b) ( cosa necesaria) necessity, essential

2) ( pobreza) poverty, need

3) necesidades femenino plural

a) ( requerimientos) needs (pl), requirements (pl)

b) ( privaciones) hardship

c)

* * *

= necessity, need, requirement, want, exigency, urge, necessity.

Ex. The main inconveniences of item record indexes arise from the necessity of searching the entire file.

Ex. The need to become familiar with different command languages for different hosts is a considerable barrier to effective retrieval.

Ex. The most appropriate type of abstract must be chosen in accordance with the requirements of each individual application.

Ex. Several possible rules governing the reference interview are examined; one calls for inquiry into client's underlying wants, 'the face value rule', another for inquiry into underlying needs, 'the purpose rule'.

Ex. The LA dangles between short-term exigencies and long-term potentials, and a call for cuts in library school output is trying to cure symptoms rather than diseases.

Ex. The urge to mechanize paper-making came at first as much from the papermakers' desire to free themselves from dependence upon their skilled but rebellious workmen as from the pursuit of production economies.

Ex. Books may be useful to many people, but it is by no means common for them to be necessities.

----

* adaptable a las necesidades del usuario = customisable [customizable, -USA].

* adaptar a las necesidades de = tailor to + the needs of, gear to + the needs of.

* adaptar a una necesidad = time to + need, suit + requirement.

* adaptarse a una necesidad = suit + need.

* adecuar a una necesidad = suit + purpose, tailor to + demand.

* ahorrarse la necesidad de = circumvent + the need to.

* amoldarse a las necesidades de = bend to + the needs of.

* análisis de necesidades = needs assessment, needs analysis.

* apoyar la necesidad de = endorse + the need (for/to).

* atender a una necesidad = meet + need, speak to + need.

* atender las necesidades = provide for + needs.

* atender una necesidad = address + need, cover + requirement, fulfil + requirement, serve + need.

* comprobación de las necesidades económicas = means-testing, means test.

* comprobar las necesidades económicas = means test.

* confirmar la necesidad de = endorse + the need (for/to).

* cuando le surja la necesidad = at + Posesivo + time of need.

* cubrir la mayoría de las necesidades = go + most of the way.

* cubrir las necesidades de = provide for.

* cubrir una necesidad = cover + need, meet + need, serve + need, fill + need, fulfil + need, speak to + need.

* defender la necesidad = articulate + the need.

* defender la necesidad de = support + the case for.

* diagnosticar las necesidades de = diagnose + needs.

* dispositivo de ayuda a usuarios con necesidades especiales = assistive device.

* eliminar la necesidad de = remove + the need for.

* eludir la necesidad de = bypass + the need (for).

* estrategia para enfrentarse a las necesidades diarias = coping strategy, coping skill.

* estudiar una necesidad = analyse + need.

* evaluación de las necesidades económicas = means-testing, means test.

* evaluación de necesidades = needs assessment.

* evaluar las necesidades económicas = means test.

* existir una necesidad de = there + be + call for.

* hacer frente a una necesidad = meet + need, serve + need.

* hacer + Posesivo + necesidades = relieve + Reflexivo, go + potty.

* hacer que Algo sea pertinente a las necesidades de Algo o Alguien = make + Nombre + relevant to.

* insistir en la necesidad de = insist on + the necessity of, insist on + the need for.

* justificar la necesidad de = justify + the case for.

* la necesidad agudiza el ingenio = necessity mothers invention, necessity is the mother of invention.

* librar de la necesidad de = relieve of + the necessity of, relieve of + the need to.

* necesidad apremiante = desperate need.

* necesidad corporal = bodily function.

* necesidad de información = information need.

* necesidad económica = economic necessity, economic need.

* necesidades de espacio = space requirements.

* necesidad extrema = dire need.

* necesidad humana = human need.

* necesidad imperiosa = desperate need.

* necesidad informativa = information need.

* necesidad urgente = desperate need, urgent need.

* necesidad visceral = visceral need.

* niño con necesidades especiales = special needs child.

* no tener la necesidad de usar Algo = have + no use for.

* orientado hacia unas necesidades = need oriented.

* plantear la necesidad = articulate + the need.

* por necesidad = of necessity, out of necessity.

* prever una necesidad = project + need.

* producto de la necesidad = born of necessity.

* provisiones de primera necesidad = basic provisions, basic goods.

* que se concede en función de las necesidades económicas = means-tested.

* quien no malgasta no pasa necesidades = waste not, want not.

* recalcar la necesidad = stress + the need.

* regla de la necesidad = purpose rule.

* resaltar la necesidad = stress + the need.

* resaltar la necesidad de = imprint + the need for.

* resolver una necesidad = address + requirement.

* responder a una necesidad = address + need.

* satisfacer las necesidades = provide for + needs.

* satisfacer las necesidades de = provide for.

* satisfacer una necesidad = match + need, match + requirement, meet + need, meet + requirement, satisfy + need, satisfy + requirement, accommodate + need, fulfil + need.

* sentir la necesidad de = feel + need for, feel + the need to, get + the urge to.

* sin necesidad de ello = gratuitous, gratuitously.

* sin necesidad de pensar = thought-free.

* surgir una necesidad = need + arise.

* tecnología adaptada a usuarios con necesidades especiales = assistive technology.

* una necesidad cada vez mayor = a growing need.

* verse en la necesidad = be constrained to.

* verse en la necesidad de = be left with the need to.

* verse en la necesidad urgente de = be hard pressed.

* * *

1)

a) (urgencia, falta) need

b) ( cosa necesaria) necessity, essential

2) ( pobreza) poverty, need

3) necesidades femenino plural

a) ( requerimientos) needs (pl), requirements (pl)

b) ( privaciones) hardship

c)

* * *

* * *

1 (urgencia, falta) need

en caso de necesidad me lo prestará she'll lend it to me if necessary o if need be

una imperiosa necesidad an urgent o a pressing need

tengo necesidad de unas vacaciones I'm in need of o I need a break

¿qué necesidad hay de decírselo? do we/you have to tell her?, is there any need to tell her?

no hay necesidad de que se entere there's no need for her to know

subrayó la necesidad de que permaneciera secreto he emphasized the need for it to remain secret

hacer de la necesidad virtud to make a virtue of necessity

la necesidad tiene cara de hereje beggars can't be choosers

la necesidad hace maestros or aguza el ingenio necessity is the mother of invention

2 (cosa necesaria) necessity, essential

no es un lujo sino una necesidad it is not a luxury but a necessity o an essential

B (pobreza) poverty, need

viven en la necesidad they live in poverty, they are very poor o needy

la necesidad lo impulsó a robar he stole out of necessity o need, poverty drove him to steal

su muerte los dejó en la más absoluta necesidad his death left them in extreme poverty

(inevitabilidad): tienen que hacer transbordo en Irún por necesidad you have no alternative but to change trains at Irún

una herida mortal de necesidad ( period); a fatal wound

D necesidades fpl

1 (requerimientos) needs (pl), requirements (pl)

no podremos satisfacer sus necesidades we will be unable to meet your requirements o needs

2 (privaciones) hardship

sufrieron or pasaron muchas necesidades they suffered a great deal of hardship

hacer sus necesidades ( euf); to relieve oneself ( euph)

saca al perro a hacer sus necesidades take the dog out to do his business ( euph)

se hace sus necesidades encima he dirties o soils himself ( euph)

* * *

a) (urgencia, falta) need;

◊ no hay necesidad de que se entere there's no need for her to know;

b) ( cosa necesaria) necessity, essential

c) ( pobreza) poverty, need

◊ necesidades sustantivo femenino plural

a) ( requerimientos) needs (pl), requirements (pl)

b) ( privaciones) hardship;

◊ pasar necesidades to suffer hardship

◊ hacer sus necesidades (euf) to relieve oneself (euph)

* * *

necesidad nf

1. [en general] need;

discutieron la necesidad de detener la violencia they discussed the need to stop the violence;

en esta oficina tenemos una urgente necesidad de espacio we are in urgent need of more space in this office;

no veo la necesidad de darle un premio I don't see any reason to give him a prize;

nos recordaron la necesidad de ser discretos they reminded us of the need for discretion;

tener necesidad de algo to need sth;

no hay necesidad de que se lo digas there's no need for you to tell her;

obedecer a la necesidad (de) to arise from the need (to);

necesidad perentoria urgent need;

puedes hablarme, sin necesidad de gritar there's no need to shout;

se puede comer sin necesidad de calentarlo previamente can be eaten cold, needs no preheating;

de (primera) necesidad essential;

un artículo de primera necesidad a basic commodity

2. [obligación] necessity;

por necesidad out of necessity;

una herida mortal de necesidad a fatal wound

3. [hambre] hunger;

pasar necesidades to suffer hardship;

la necesidad la obligó a mendigar poverty forced her to beg

4. Euf

ya estoy harto de que los perros de los vecinos se hagan sus necesidades en la escalera I'm fed up of neighbours' dogs doing their business on the stairs

* * *

1 need;

en caso de necesidad if necessary;

por necesidad out of necessity;

hacer de la necesidad virtud make a virtue out of a necessity

2 ( cosa esencial) necessity;

de primera necesidad essential

hacer sus necesidades fam relieve o.s.

pasar necesidades suffer hardship

* * *

necesidad nf

1) : need, necessity

2) : poverty, want

3) necesidades nfpl

: hardships

hacer sus necesidades : to relieve oneself

* * *

necesidad n

1. (falta) need

2. (cosa esencial) necessity [pl. necessities]

3. (pobreza) poverty

SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing

[br]

[br]

[br]

Few biographical details are known of Johann Gensfleisch zum Gutenberg, yet it has been said that he was responsible for Germany's most notable contribution to civilization. He was a goldsmith by trade, of a patrician family of the city of Mainz. He seems to have begun experiments on printing while a political exile in Strasbourg c. 1440. He returned to Mainz between 1444 and 1448 and continued his experiments, until by 1450 he had perfected his invention sufficiently to justify raising capital for its commercial exploitation.

Circumstances were propitious for the invention of printing at that time. Rises in literacy and prosperity had led to the formation of a social class with the time and resources to develop a taste for reading, and the demand for reading matter had outstripped the ability of the scribes to satisfy it. The various technologies required were well established, and finally the flourishing textile industry was producing enough waste material, rag, to make paper, the only satisfactory and cheap medium for printing. There were others working along similar lines, but it was Gutenberg who achieved the successful adaptation and combination of technologies to arrive at a process by which many identical copies of a text could be produced in a wide variety of forms, of which the book was the most important. Gutenberg did make several technical innovations, however. The two-piece adjustable mould for casting types of varying width, from T to "M", was ingenious. Then he had to devise an oil-based ink suitable for inking metal type, derived from the painting materials developed by contemporary Flemish artists. Finally, probably after many experiments, he arrived at a metal alloy of distinctive composition suitable for casting type.

In 1450 Gutenberg borrowed 800 guldens from Johannes Fust, a lawyer of Mainz, and two years later Fust advanced a further 800 guldens, securing for himself a partnership in Gutenberg's business. But in 1455 Fust foreclosed and the bulk of Gutenberg's equipment passed to Peter Schöffer, who was in the service of Fust and later married his daughter. Like most early printers, Gutenberg seems not to have appreciated, or at any rate to have been able to provide for, the great dilemma of the publishing trade, namely the outlay of considerable capital in advance of each publication and the slowness of the return. Gutenberg probably retained only the type for the 42- and 36-line bibles and possibly the Catholicon of 1460, an encyclopedic work compiled in the thirteenth century and whose production pointed the way to printing's role as a means of spreading knowledge. The work concluded with a short descriptive piece, or colophon, which is probably by Gutenberg himself and is the only output of his mind that we have; it manages to omit the names of both author and printer.

Gutenberg seems to have abandoned printing after 1460, perhaps due to failing eyesight as well as for financial reasons, and he suffered further loss in the sack of Mainz in 1462. He received a kind of pension from the Archbishop in 1465, and on his death was buried in the Franciscan church in Mainz. The only major work to have issued for certain from Gutenberg's workshop is the great 42-line bible, begun in 1452 and completed by August 1456. The quality of this Graaf piece of printing is a tribute to Gutenberg's ability as a printer, and the soundness of his invention is borne out by the survival of the process as he left it to the world, unchanged for over three hundred years save in minor details.

[br]

brevet [bʀəvε]

1. masculine noun

   a. ( = diplôme) diploma

• brevet (des collèges) exam taken at the age of 16

   b. [de pilote] licence

   c. brevet (d'invention) patent

2. compounds

► brevet d'aptitude à la fonction d'animateur certificate for activity leaders in a holiday camp

► brevet d'études professionnelles technical school certificate

► brevet informatique et internet certificate of competence in ICT

► brevet de secourisme first aid certificate

► brevet de technicien vocational training certificate taken at age of 16

► brevet de technicien supérieur vocational training certificate taken after the age of 18

* * *

nom masculin

1) ( d'invention)

2) ( diplôme)

•

- brevet des collèges

- brevet de pilote

- brevet de technicien supérieur

* * *

1) (brevet d'invention) patent

2) (= certificat) diploma, certificate, (brevet des collèges) school certificate, taken at about 16

* * *

brevet nm

1 ( d'invention) brevet (d'invention) patent; déposer un brevet to take out a patent (pour on); après le dépôt du brevet after patenting;

2 ( diplôme) ≈ certificate; brevet de moniteur de ski/de secourisme ski instructor's/first aid certificate; brevet de respectabilité hum social acceptability certificate.

brevet des collèges Scol certificate of general education; brevet d'études professionnelles, BEP Scol certificate of technical education; brevet de pilote Aviat pilot's licence^GB; brevet professionnel specialized technical qualification acquired in the workplace; brevet de technicien supérieur, BTS Univ advanced vocational diploma.

ⓘ Brevet The term usually designates a type of vocational qualification such as the brevet d'études professionnelles or BEP, which is awarded after two years of practically oriented coursework at a lycée professionnel or the brevet de technicien supérieur or BTS, taken after the baccalauréat and representing two years of study in a specific vocational field. The brevet des collèges, on the other hand, is a general educational qualification taken at around the age of fifteen at the end of study in a collège.

[brəvɛ] nom masculin

1. DROIT

2. ÉDUCATION diploma

brevet d'études professionnelles → link=BEP BEP

brevet de technicien supérieur → link=BTS BTS

3. AÉRONAUTIQUE

4. [certificat] certificate

SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing

[br]

[br]

[br]

Bi Sheng was a commoner, "a man of unofficial position". The only record of his invention is Shen Gua's writings, the Meng Qi Bi Tan (c.1088), which give a clear and complete description of the making of type, typesetting, printing and distribution of the type after printing. Each character was cut in a piece of clay and then baked hard. The type was placed in an iron frame or forme set on an iron plate coated with a sticky resin, wax and paper ash. Printing a few copies was laborious, but for 100 or 1,000 copies the process was relatively quick. Each character had several types, and the commoner ones had as many as twenty or more. No further information about the type has survived, nor has any book produced in this way. Bi Sheng died soon after his invention was made, and so he was probably unable to pass the details on to an apprentice or follower.

[br]

(n.) = movable type

Ex. The human race has produced since the invention of movable type a total record, in the form of magazines, newspapers, advertising blurbs, correspondence.

* * *

flying, volitant.

tropical two-wing flyingfish, Exocoetus volitans.

* * *

► adjetivo

1 flying

► nombre masculino volador

1 (cohete) rocket

2 (pez) flying fish

3 (molusco) type of squid

► nombre masculino

1 (cohete) rocket

2 (pez) flying fish

3 (molusco) type of squid

* * *

ADJ flying [antes de s]

2. SM

1) (=pez) flying fish; (=calamar) species of squid

2) (=cohete) rocket

3) (And, CAm) (=molinillo) toy windmill

4) (Caribe) (=cometa) kite

* * *

- dora adjetivo flying (before n)

1) ( pez) flying fish

2) ( en pirotecnia) rocket

* * *

= flying.

Ex. A new flying invention has been unveiled in the US, which could see humans take to the sky.

----

* objeto volador = flying object.

* OVNI (Objeto Volador No Identificado) = UFO (Unidentified Flying Object).

* pez volador = flying fish.

* trapecio volador = flying trapeze.

* * *

- dora adjetivo flying (before n)

1) ( pez) flying fish

2) ( en pirotecnia) rocket

* * *

* * *

flying ( before n)

volador² voladores (↑ voladores 21)

1 (molusco) type of squid

2 (pez) flying fish

B (en pirotecnia) rocket

* * *

◊ - dora adjetivo

* * *

♦ adj

flying

♦ nm

1. [pez] flying fish

2. [calamar] short-finned squid

3. [cohete] rocket

4. Bol [cometa] kite

* * *

I adj flying

II m

1 ( cohete) rocket

2 pez flying fish; calamar: type of squid

* * *

volador, - dora adj

: flying

génial, e (masculine plural - iaux) [ʒenjal, jo]

   a. ( = inspiré) [écrivain] of genius ; [plan, idée, invention] inspired

   b. ( = formidable) (inf) [atmosphère, soirée, personne] great (inf) ; [plan] brilliant (inf)

• c'est génial ! that's great! (inf)

* * *

géniale, mpl - iaux ʒenjal, o adjectif

1) ( ayant du génie) brilliant

2) ( inspiré par le génie) [idée, invention, découverte] brilliant

3) (colloq) ( fantastique) [spectacle, livre] brilliant (colloq) GB, great (colloq); [personne] great (colloq)

* * *

géniaux mpl adj

1) (esprit, personne) of genius

2) * (= formidable) great, brilliant

* * *

génial, géniale, mpl - iaux adj

1 ( ayant du génie) brilliant;

2 ( inspiré par le génie) [plan, idée, conception, réalisation] brilliant, inspired; [invention, découverte] brilliant;

3 ○( fantastique) [spectacle, coupe de cheveux, livre] brilliant GB, fantastic○, great; [personne] great; [idée] brilliant; génial! brilliant! GB, great!; c'est un type génial he's a great bloke GB ou guy.

( féminin géniale, pluriel masculin géniaux) [ʒenjal, o] adjectif

1. [qui a du génie] of genius

2. [ingénieux] brilliant

3. (familier) [sensationnel] brilliant, great, fantastic

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

[br]

[br]

Samuel Crompton was the son of a tenant farmer, George, who became the caretaker of the old house Hall-i-th-Wood, near Bolton, where he died in 1759. As a boy, Samuel helped his widowed mother in various tasks at home, including weaving. He liked music and made his own violin, with which he later was to earn some money to pay for tools for building his spinning mule. He was set to work at spinning and so in 1769 became familiar with the spinning jenny designed by James Hargreaves; he soon noticed the poor quality of the yarn produced and its tendency to break. Crompton became so exasperated with the jenny that in 1772 he decided to improve it. After seven years' work, in 1779 he produced his famous spinning "mule". He built the first one entirely by himself, principally from wood. He adapted rollers similar to those already patented by Arkwright for drawing out the cotton rovings, but it seems that he did not know of Arkwright's invention. The rollers were placed at the back of the mule and paid out the fibres to the spindles, which were mounted on a moving carriage that was drawn away from the rollers as the yarn was paid out. The spindles were rotated to put in twist. At the end of the draw, or shortly before, the rollers were stopped but the spindles continued to rotate. This not only twisted the yarn further, but slightly stretched it and so helped to even out any irregularities; it was this feature that gave the mule yarn extra quality. Then, after the spindles had been turned backwards to unwind the yarn from their tips, they were rotated in the spinning direction again and the yarn was wound on as the carriage was pushed up to the rollers.

The mule was a very versatile machine, making it possible to spin almost every type of yarn. In fact, Samuel Crompton was soon producing yarn of a much finer quality than had ever been spun in Bolton, and people attempted to break into Hall-i-th-Wood to see how he produced it. Crompton did not patent his invention, perhaps because it consisted basically of the essential features of the earlier machines of Hargreaves and Arkwright, or perhaps through lack of funds. Under promise of a generous subscription, he disclosed his invention to the spinning industry, but was shabbily treated because most of the promised money was never paid. Crompton's first mule had forty-eight spindles, but it did not long remain in its original form for many people started to make improvements to it. The mule soon became more popular than Arkwright's waterframe because it could spin such fine yarn, which enabled weavers to produce the best muslin cloth, rivalling that woven in India and leading to an enormous expansion in the British cotton-textile industry. Crompton eventually saved enough capital to set up as a manufacturer himself and around 1784 he experimented with an improved carding engine, although he was not successful. In 1800, local manufacturers raised a sum of £500 for him, and eventually in 1812 he received a government grant of £5,000, but this was trifling in relation to the immense financial benefits his invention had conferred on the industry, to say nothing of his expenses. When Crompton was seeking evidence in 1811 to support his claim for financial assistance, he found that there were 4,209,570 mule spindles compared with 155,880 jenny and 310,516 waterframe spindles. He later set up as a bleacher and again as a cotton manufacturer, but only the gift of a small annuity by his friends saved him from dying in total poverty.

[br]

(n.) = advertising blurb

Ex. The human race has produced since the invention of movable type a total record, in the form of magazines, newspapers, advertising blurbs, correspondence.

* * *

SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Public utilities

[br]

[br]

[br]

An important application of the magneto generator was demonstrated by Holmes in 1853 when he showed that it might be used to supply an arc lamp. This had many implications for the future because it presented the possibility of making electric lighting economically successful. In 1856 he patented a machine with six disc armatures on a common axis rotating between seven banks of permanent magnets. The following year Holmes suggested the possible application of his invention to lighthouse illumination and a trial was arranged and observed by Faraday, who was at that time scientific adviser to Trinity House, the corporation entrusted with the care of light-houses in England and Wales. Although the trial was successful and gained the approval of Faraday, the Elder Brethren of Trinity House imposed strict conditions on Holmes's design for machines to be used for a more extensive trial. These included connecting the machine directly to a slow-speed steam engine, but this resulted in a reduced performance. The experiments of Holmes and Faraday were brought to the attention of the French lighthouse authorities and magneto generators manufactured by Société Alliance began to be installed in some lighthouses along the coast of France. After noticing the French commutatorless machines, Holmes produced an alternator of similar type in 1867. Two of these were constructed for a new lighthouse at Souter Point near Newcastle and two were installed in each of the two lighthouses at South Foreland. One of the machines from South Foreland that was in service from 1872 to 1922 is preserved in the Royal Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. A Holmes generator is also preserved in the Science Museum, London. Holmes obtained a series of patents for generators between 1856 and 1869, with all but the last being of the magneto-electric type.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

[br]

[br]

Jacquard was apprenticed at the age of 12 to bookbinding, and later to type-founding and cutlery. His parents, who had some connection with weaving, left him a small property upon their death. He made some experiments with pattern weaving, but lost all his inheritance; after marrying, he returned to type-founding and cutlery. In 1790 he formed the idea for his machine, but it was forgotten amidst the excitement of the French Revolution, in which he fought for the Revolutionists at the defence of Lyons. The machine he completed in 1801 combined earlier inventions and was for weaving net. He was sent to Paris to demonstrate it at the National Exposition and received a bronze medal. In 1804 Napoleon granted him a patent, a pension of 1,500 francs and a premium on each machine sold. This enabled him to study and work at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers to perfect his mechanism for pattern weaving. A method of selecting any combination of leashes at each shoot of the weft had to be developed, and Jacquard's mechanism was the outcome of various previous inventions. By taking the cards invented by Falcon in 1728 that were punched with holes like the paper of Bouchon in 1725, to select the needles for each pick, and by placing the apparatus above the loom where Vaucanson had put his mechanism, Jacquard combined the best features of earlier inventions. He was not entirely successful because his invention failed in the way it pressed the card against the needles; later modifications by Breton in 1815 and Skola in 1819 were needed before it functioned reliably. However, the advantage of Jacquard's machine was that each pick could be selected much more quickly than on the earlier draw looms, which meant that John Kay's flying shuttle could be introduced on fine pattern looms because the weaver no longer had to wait for the drawboy to sort out the leashes for the next pick. Robert Kay's drop box could also be used with different coloured wefts. The drawboy could be dispensed with because the foot-pedal operating the Jacquard mechanism could be worked by the weaver. Patterns could be changed quickly by replacing one set of cards with another, but the scope of the pattern was more limited than with the draw loom. Some machines that were brought into use aroused bitter hostility. Jacquard suffered physical violence, barely escaping with his life, and his machines were burnt by weavers at Lyons. However, by 1812 his mechanism began to be generally accepted and had been applied to 11,000 draw-looms in France. In 1819 Jacquard received a gold medal and a Cross of Honour for his invention. His machines reached England c.1816 and still remain the basic way of weaving complicated patterns.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

[br]

[br]

The claims of Highs to have invented both the spinning jenny and the waterframe have been dismissed by most historians. Thomas Highs was a reedmaker of Leigh, Lancashire. In about 1763 he had as a neighbour John Kay, the clockmaker from Warrington, whom he employed to help him construct his machines. During this period they were engaged in making a spinning jenny, but after several months of toil, in a fit of despondency, they threw the machine through the attic window. Highs persevered, however, and made a jenny that could spin six threads. The comparatively sophisticated arrangements for drawing and twisting at the same time, as depicted by Guest (1823), suggest that this machine came after the one invented by James Hargreaves. Guest claims that Highs made this machine between 1764 and 1766 and in the following two years constructed another, in which the spindles were placed in a circle. In 1771 Highs moved to Manchester, where he constructed a double jenny that was displayed at the Manchester Exchange, and received a subscription of £200 from the cotton manufacturers. However, all this occurred after Hargreaves had constructed his jenny. In the trial of Arkwright's patent during 1781, Highs gave evidence. He was recalled from Ireland, where he had been superintending the building of cotton-spinning machinery for Baron Hamilton's newly erected mill at Balbriggan, north of Dublin. Then in 1785, during the next trial of Arkwright's patent, Highs claimed that in 1767 he had made rollers for drawing out the cotton before spinning. This would have been for a different type of spinning machine, similar to the one later constructed by Arkwright. Highs was helped by John Kay and it was these rollers that Kay subsequently built for Arkwright. If the drawing shown by Guest is correct, then Highs was working on the wrong principles because his rollers were spaced too far apart and were not held together by weights, with the result that the twist would have passed into the drafting zone, producing uneven drawing.

[br]

- wynalazek druku the invention of printing

- omyłka druku a misprint a. printing error

- nadający/nienadający się do druku printable/unprintable

- teksty/książki są gotowe do druku the texts/books are ready to go to press

- jego teksty ukazały się drukiem his texts have appeared in print a. have got into print

- wydać a. ogłosić coś drukiem to publish sth

- druk tłusty/półtłusty bold/semibold print a. type

- druk rozstrzelony a. rozstawiony spaced out type

- duży/drobny druk large/small print

- uwagi dużym/drobnym drukiem comments in large/fine a. small print

- druk na obu stronach kartki printed matter on both sides of a page

- pisać drukiem to write in capitals a. block capitals

- druk wielobarwny colour a. process printing

- cenne/stare druki valuable/old prints

- druki reklamowe/ulotne handbills a. flyers/leaflets

- „druk” (na kopercie) ‘Printed matter’

- wysłać coś jako druk to send sth printed-paper rate

- druk stemplowy block printing

- □ druk akcydensowy (biurowy, urzędowy) headed stationery; (użytkowy) short-run (printed) material a. matter

- druk batikowy Techn., Włók. batik

- druk offsetowy Druk. offset (printing)

- druk płaski Druk. lithography, planographic printing

- druk ścisłego zarachowania a numbered and registered official form or document

- druk urzędowy (official) form

- druk wklęsły Druk. intaglio

- druk wypukły Druk. letterpress, relief printing

* * *

- druki

* * *

1. (= drukowanie) printing; przygotować do druku prepare for printing; książka została oddana do druku book is in press; książka ukazała się drukiem book was published l. printed, book appeared in print; przemówienie wyszło drukiem speech was published l. printed; publikować drukiem print.

2. (= technika drukowania) printing technique; druk wypukły relief printing; druk wklęsły gravure printing; druk offsetowy offset printing; tłusty druk bold type l. typeface, boldface; druk pochyły italics, italic type; druk rozstrzelony spaced type; druk wielobarwny multi-color print.

3. ( blankiet) form, blank; ( wydawnictwa) printed matter; proszę wypełnić ten druk please fill out this form, Br. please fill in this form; druki akcydensowe job printing; druki ścisłego zarachowania numbered (blank) forms; druk urzędowy official form; druki reklamowe advertising materials, leaflets.

4. techn., tk. (= nanoszenie deseniu) printing; druk ręczny manual printing; druk sitowy silk-screen printing; druk natryskowy spray printing.

5. techn. (= deseń) print; druk batikowy batik (print).

1 (printing) press.

2 printing house (establecimiento).

3 printing press, press.

4 printing works.

3^rd person singular (él/ella/ello) present indicative of spanish verb: imprentar.

* * *

► nombre femenino

1 (arte) printing

■ la invención de la imprenta the invention of printing

2 (taller) printer's, printing house

* * *

1) (=acto) printing

2) (=máquina) press

3) (=taller) printer's

4) (=impresos) printed matter

* * *

femenino ( taller) printer's; ( aparato) (printing) press; ( actividad) printing

* * *

= book house, printing house, printing office, printing press, press [presses, -pl.], establishment, printing machine, printing company, printing firm, print shop.

Ex. Although most London book houses owned galley presses for making slip proofs by the 1870, it appears that companionship bookwork was generally made up into pages and imposed before proofing until the mid 1880s.

Ex. Companionship systems were operated in the Boston printing house of Hobart and Robins in the early 1850s.

Ex. Companionships had probably been developed in late eighteenth-century London for dealing with rush jobs in the larger printing offices.

Ex. The place of printing is the location where the printing press is situated, of failing this, the organization acting for it.

Ex. Several of the commercial and university publishers that had been prominent in 1983 have been replaced by new presses.

Ex. Certainly the larger establishments of the early machine-press period, which produced comparable numbers of damp sheets, found it necessary to install heated drying rooms.

Ex. The author list reprographic equipment suitable for use in libraries (copiers, cutting equipment, printing machines, collators, driers).

Ex. The first formally organized photomechanical printing company in the world was created by Paul Pretsch in 1854 in England.

Ex. These archives are so complete that they present a rare insight into the early history of a printing firm which under 4 generations of owners produced work for 127 years.

Ex. The only feminist print shop in North America has closed down after 23 years.

----

* al principio de la imprenta = early printing.

* cajista de imprenta = compositor, typesetter.

* carácter de imprenta = block capital, block letter.

* era de la imprenta, la = print era, the.

* GPO (Imprenta del Gobierno Americano) = GPO (Government Printing Office).

* historia de la imprenta = history of printing.

* imprenta de galeradas = galley press.

* imprenta de material efímero = jobbing house, jobbing office, jobbing printer.

* imprenta de periódico = news press.

* imprenta especializada en remendería = jobbing house.

* imprenta pequeña = small press.

* imprenta privada = private press.

* industria de la imprenta, la = printing industry, the.

* letra de imprenta = block capital, block letter.

* máquina de imprenta = printing machine.

* metal de imprenta = type-metal [typemetal].

* oficial aprendiz de imprenta = journeyman printer.

* papel de imprenta = printing paper, copy paper.

* pie de imprenta = edition imprint, imprint statement, imprint.

* taller de imprenta = printing house, printing firm, printing company, print shop.

* tinta de imprenta = printing ink.

* tipo de imprenta = book face, printing type, type.

* * *

femenino ( taller) printer's; ( aparato) (printing) press; ( actividad) printing

* * *

* * *

1 (taller) printer's

2 (aparato) printing press, press

3 (actividad) printing letra

* * *

* * *

imprenta nf

1. [máquina] (printing) press

2. [establecimiento] printing house, printer's

* * *

1 taller printer’s

2 arte, técnica printing

3 máquina printing press;

dar a la imprenta send for printing

* * *

imprenta nf

1) : printing

2) : printing shop, press

* * *

imprenta n

1. (arte) printing

2. (taller) printer's